Since that external cause has to be outside the whole aggregate of contingent things, it cannot itself be contingent. So it is necessary. And this is God. To demonstrate this, Ibn Sina argues any contingent thing on its own basis could either exist or not exist, but it must have some external cause that made it exist….

Avicenna said at an early age that he remained “unconvinced” by Ismaili missionary attempts to convert him. However, the 14th century Shia faqih Nurullah Shushtari according to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, claimed he was a Twelver Shia.

He invented an instrument for observing the coordinates of a star. He made several astronomical observations and stated that the stars were self-luminous. In mathematics, Avicenna explained the arithmetical concept and application of the “casting out of nines”. Ibn Sina also contributed to poetry, religion and music.

Four hundred years before Auguste Comte’s ‘invention’ of sociology, Ibn Khaldun unveiled his ‘science of culture’. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that he emphasized sociological factors governing the apparent events. His contributions accorded him with the title ‘the real father of sociology’.

Edward B. Tylor

In his The Introduction (1377), ibn Khaldun also wrote, “History is an art of valuable doctrine, numerous in advantages and honourable in purpose; it informs us about bygone nations in the context of their habits, the prophets in the context of their lives and kings in the context of their states and politics, so those …

How did Ibn Khaldun improve the study and writing of history? He stressed economics and social structure and warned about common errors in historical writing, including bias, exaggeration, and untrustworthy sources.

How much reliable history there is about Muhammad is disputed, with some Muslim sources maintaining that “everything he did and said was recorded”, while other academic sources claim that almost all of the available information about Muhammad’s life, apart from the fact of his existence, is not historically credible.

chivalry and the romance of nomadic life. the life of Muhammad. a strict adherence to religious themes. mysticism and faithful worship without a reward.

Abd ar-Rahman III

The Abbasids built Baghdad from scratch while maintaining the network of roads and trade routes the Persians had established before the Umayyad Dynasty took over. Baghdad was strategically located between Asia and Europe, which made it a prime spot on overland trade routes between the two continents.

Muhammad ibn Ali

Non-Arabs were treated as second-class citizens regardless of whether or not they converted to Islam, and this discontent cutting across faiths and ethnicities ultimately led to the Umayyads’ overthrow. The Abbasid family claimed to have descended from al-Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet.